Serious blow to dark matter theories? New study finds mysterious lack of dark matter in Sun’s neighborhood

(Phys.org) — The most accurate study so far of the motions of stars in the Milky Way has found no evidence for dark matter in a large volume around the Sun. According to widely accepted theories, the solar neighbourhood was expected to be filled with dark matter, a mysterious invisible substance that can only be detected indirectly by the gravitational force it exerts. But a new study by a team of astronomers in Chile has found that these theories just do not fit the observational facts. This may mean that attempts to directly detect dark matter particles on Earth are unlikely to be successful.

A team using the MPG/ESO 2.2-metre telescope at ESO’s La Silla Observatory, along with other telescopes, has mapped the motions of more than 400 stars up to 13 000 light-years from the Sun. From this new data they have calculated the mass of material in the vicinity of the Sun, in a volume four times larger than ever considered before.”The amount of mass that we derive matches very well with what we see — stars, dust and gas — in the region around the Sun,” says team leader Christian Moni Bidin (Departamento de Astronomia, Universidad de Concepcion, Chile). “But this leaves no room for the extra material — dark matter — that we were expecting. Our calculations show that it should have shown up very clearly in our measurements. But it was just not there!”

more

Solar ‘climate change’ could cause rougher space weather

Recent research shows that the space age has coincided with a period of unusually high solar activity, called a grand maximum. Isotopes in ice sheets and tree rings tell us that this grand solar maximum is one of 24 during the last 9300 years and suggest the high levels of solar magnetic field seen over the space age will reduce in future. This decline will cause a reduction in sunspot numbers and explosive solar events, but those events that do take place could be more damaging. Graduate student Luke Barnard of the University of Reading will present new results on ‘solar climate change’ in his paper at the National Astronomy Meeting in Manchester. The level of radiation in the space environment is of great interest to scientists and engineers as it poses various threats to man-made systems including damage to electronics on satellites. It can also be a health hazard to astronauts and to a lesser extent the crew of high-altitude aircraft. The main sources of radiation are galactic cosmic rays (GCRs), which are a continuous flow of highly energetic particles from outside our solar system and solar energetic particles (SEPs), which are accelerated to high energies in short bursts by explosive events on the sun. The amount of radiation in the near-Earth environment from these two sources is partly controlled in a complicated way by the strength of the Sun’s magnetic field.

more

CODITA: measuring the cosmic dust swept up by the Earth

Royal Astronomical Society press release
RAS PR 12/33, NAM 24
Friday 30 March 2012

Although we think of space as being empty, there is more out there than meets the eye – dust, for example, is everywhere. If all the material between the Sun and Jupiter were compressed together it would form a moon 25 km across. Now a new research programme will try to see how much of this dust enters the Earth’s atmosphere. Metals from the cosmic dust play a part in various phenomena that affect our climate. An accurate estimate of dust would also help us understand how particles are transported through different layers of the Earth’s atmosphere. Professor John Plane of the University of Leeds will present the Cosmic Dust in the Terrestrial Atmosphere (CODITA) project on Friday 30 March at the National Astronomy Meeting in Manchester.

more

Recent Solar Storms Pumped 26 billion Kilowatts of Energy into Earth’s Atmosphere

“This was the biggest dose of heat we’ve received from a solar storm since 2005,” says Martin Mlynczak of NASA Langley Research Center. “It was a big event, and shows how solar activity can directly affect our planet.”

For the three day period, March 8th through 10th, the thermosphere absorbed 26 billion kWh of energy. Infrared radiation from carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide, the two most efficient coolants in the thermosphere, re-radiated 95% of that total back into space.

“Unfortunately, there’s no practical way to harness this kind of energy,” said Mlynczak. “It’s so diffuse and out of reach high above Earth’s surface. Plus, the majority of it has been sent back into space by the action of CO2 and NO.”

http://www.universetoday.com/94298/recent-solar-storms-pumped-26-billion-kilowatts-of-energy-into-earths-atmosphere/

The 400-Year Wet-Dry Climate Cycle in Interior North America and Its Solar Connection

Zicheng Yu and Emi Ito

Several high-resolution paleoclimatic records from lakes and peatlands in the northern Great Plains (NGP) show some regular patterns of late Holocene limate changes at centennial time scales. Sites from Minnesota to Alberta (Figure 1) that show centennial wet-dry cycles, especially at ~400 years, include Elk Lake, MN (400- and 84-yr; Dean 1997); Pickerel Lake, SD (~400-yr; Dean and Schwalb 2000); Moon Lake, ND (400-yr; Laird and others 1996); Coldwater Lake, ND (137-yr; Fritz and others 2000); Rice Lake, ND (400-, 201-, 129- and 99-yr; Yu and Ito 1999); Pine Lake, AB (440-yr;
Campbell and others 1998); and the Upper Pinto Fen, AB (386-yr; Yu and others unpublished). The most pronounced feature in most of these NGP records is that relatively dry periods alternate with short-lived wet periods about every 400 years. Superimposed on these wet-dry cycles, stacked time series from four sites (Rice, Moon, Coldwater, and Elk lakes) for the last 1000 years show characteristic climate patterns during the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) and Little Ice Age (LIA). The MCA was represented by two dry peaks centered at 650 and 850 cal BP, while the LIA was
dominated by a single drought peak around 300 cal BP (Yu and others 2002). These double Medieval droughts are likely correlated with two enerations of relict tree stumps as recorded in the Great Basin of California (Stine 1994, 1998).

We attribute this dominant 400-year wet-dry cycle to solar forcing (Yu and Ito 1999, 2000). Solar activities as indicated by solar proxy of cosmogenic isotopes (14C, 10Be) show a fundamental periodicity at ~400 years (Stuiver and Braziunas 1989; Figures 2 and 3). Dry periods in the NGP appear to correlate with solar minima (Yu and Ito 1999). Recent climate modeling suggests that solar variation likely causes a large temperature change at regional scale through a forced shift in atmospheric variability (e.g., North Atlantic Oscillation), although global-scale temperature only shows a minor response (Shindell and others 2001). These modeling results also indicate that lands and oceans show opposite responses to solar forcing. Thus we argue that the interior of the continents is more sensitive than other land areas to small changes in solar variations, especially over a longer time scale. This response in the NGP is perhaps related to a shift in dominant modes of the atmospheric pressure fields (e.g., Pacific-North American teleconnection pattern).

Full pdf –> http://tenaya.ucsd.edu/~dettinge/PACLIM/Yu02.pdf

 

Misc news from IBEX

Our local interstellar region does not currently match the characteristics where the Sun originally formed 5 billion years ago.

 

Our Sun is currently located in a region of space that is very, very thin, in terms of the amounts of dust and gas found there. We do not think it was always this way, and studying the abundances of certain elements can tell us a bit about how it has changed compared to when the Sun formed.
 
Many different elements are created during the lifetimes of massive stars – stars that are larger than our Sun. These stars “live fast and die young.” Their lifetimes are shorter than stars like our Sun, they contain more material, and their temperatures are hotter.
 
These stars fuse hydrogen to form helium, as our Sun does, but later fusion reactions also form elements such as carbon, neon, oxygen, silicon, and iron. When these stars explode as supernovae, the region around that former star is seeded with those elements, and later stars that form in this region have these elements incorporated into them. We can look at the Neon–to–Oxygen ratio in our Sun to get a sense of what the abundances of those elements were like in the area of and at the time of the Sun’s formation.
 
Measurements by IBEX of the ratio of the abundances of neon in relation to oxygen (Ne/O) in the interstellar region shows less oxygen than the science team would have expected to see. The IBEX data for the interstellar ratio does not match the solar ratio, which could mean that our local interstellar region is not like it was when the Sun formed. So, where is the oxygen? One of the ideas that the science team has is that the oxygen may be locked up in the dusty or icy grains that are in the local interstellar material.
 
Oxygen Neon Abundances
 
The ratios of interstellar oxygen to neon in the Local Cloud, our Sun, and in the Milky Way Galaxy, as a whole. There is less oxygen found in the Local Cloud as compared to the ratio found in our Sun and in the rest of the Milky Way Galaxy.Image Credit: NASA/GSFC
 
Our Sun appears to be close to the boundary of an interstellar cloud of gas and dust.

There appears to be a network of gas and dust clouds in our local galactic vicinity. While very dilute and thin, the general positions of these clouds can still be measured. As our heliosphere (and everything in it) orbits the center of our galaxy, we pass into and out of these clouds at various times.
 
IBEX data reveal that interstellar neutrals enter our heliosphere at a speed of roughly 52,000 miles per hour (83,000 kilometers per hour), about 7,000 mph (11,000 kph) slower than what was inferred from Ulysses observations; they also enter from a somewhat different direction. Magnetic forces play a major role in the interactions of the charged particles at the heliosphere’s boundaries. As the overall particle speeds drop, however, the magnetic forces play an even more dominant role. “With this lower speed, the external magnetic forces cause the heliosphere to become more squished and misshapen,” says Dave McComas. “Rather than being shaped like a bullet moving through the air, the heliosphere becomes flattened, more like a beach ball being squeezed when someone sits on it.”
 
Based on Ulysses results, previous science teams had concluded that our heliosphere was located in between two of the nearby clouds, the “Local Cloud” and the “G-Cloud” and transitioning into a new region of space. However, while the boundary of the Local Cloud is very close, IBEX results show the heliosphere remains fully in the Local Cloud, at least for the moment. “Sometime in the next hundred to few thousand years, the blink of an eye on the timescales of the galaxy, our heliosphere should leave the local interstellar cloud and encounter a much different galactic environment,” McComas says.
 
Researchers will be able to add measurements about the charged particles outside the heliosphere to the neutral particle measurements provided by IBEX as the two Voyager spacecraft leave our Solar System and cross the heliosphere boundary, possibly within the next few years. “That will give us an even more complete picture of what’s happening in the regions surrounding our home in the Solar System,” says McComas.
 
Interstellar neutral atoms entering from outside our Solar System
 
Our local interstellar environment. IBEX data shows that our Solar System is currently located within the boundary of the Local Cloud.Image Credit: IBEX team, M. Paternostro (The Adler Planetarium), Dr. P. Frisch (University of Chicago), Dr. S. Redfield (Wesleyan University)
 
Why are these observations important?
 
Our heliosphere is our home in the galaxy, and understanding how it protects us as it interacts with local interstellar material is important as we plan future space travel beyond Earth and think about the conditions surrounding our Solar System in the distant past and future.
 
Our heliosphere is like a protective cocoon being inflated in the interstellar medium by the Sun’s million mph solar wind. As our Sun orbits the center of the galaxy every 225 million years, it bobs in and out of the disk of the galaxy like a horse on a merry–go–round. As it does this, it passes through areas of the interstellar medium that are more and less dense, causing the heliosphere to change in shape and size. Denser areas can compress the heliosphere, while less dense regions allow the bubble to expand. In addition, the strength of the solar wind varies over the Sun’s cycle, “breathing” periodically, also contributing to this.
 
Understanding how all of these things affect the heliosphere is important so that we can better understand how the heliosphere protects us. It is a crucial layer of protection against dangerous cosmic rays that are harmful to living things. As cosmic rays approach the heliosphere, they are deflected, and the majority of them are not able to pass into the inner Solar System. Fortunately, our Earth’s magnetic field is usually able to shield life on Earth from the remaining cosmic rays. However, astronauts on deep space missions cannot bring the Earth’s protection with them.
 
We must also consider how the heliosphere will protect us in the distant future or how it did protect us in the past. Understanding the heliosphere and how it protects us is part of understanding our home in the galaxy.

Space weather: Explosions on Venus

(physorg.com) Space Weather Explosions on Venus: When discontinuities in the solar wind remain in contact with a planet’s bow shock, they can collect a pool of hot particles that becomes a hot flow anomaly (HFA). An HFA on Venus most likely acts like a vacuum, pulling up parts of the planet’s atmosphere.

In the grand scheme of the solar system, Venus and Earth are almost the same distance from the sun. Yet the planets differ dramatically: Venus is some 100 times hotter than Earth and its days more than 200 times longer. The atmosphere on Venus is so thick that the longest any spacecraft has survived on its surface before being crushed is a little over two hours. There’s another difference, too. Earth has a magnetic field and Venus does not – a crucial distinction when assessing the effects of the sun on each planet.

      read more

On the probability of occurrence of extreme space weather events

www.agu.org

By virtue of their rarity, extreme space weather events, such as the Carrington event of 1859, are difficult to study, their rates of occurrence are difficult to estimate, and prediction of a specific future event is virtually impossible. Additionally, events may be extreme relative to one parameter but normal relative to others. In this study, we analyze several measures of the severity of space weather events (flare intensity, coronal mass ejection speeds, Dst, and >30 MeV proton fluences as inferred from nitrate records) to estimate the probability of occurrence of extreme events. By showing that the frequency of occurrence scales as an inverse power of the severity of the event, and assuming that this relationship holds at higher magnitudes, we are able to estimate the probability that an event larger than some criteria will occur within a certain interval of time in the future. For example, the probability of another Carrington event (based on Dst < ?850 nT) occurring within the next decade is ?12%. We also identify and address several limitations with this approach. In particular, we assume time stationarity, and thus, the effects of long-term space climate change are not considered. While this technique cannot be used to predict specific events, it may ultimately be useful for probabilistic forecasting.

read more

Europe plans solar orbiter and dark energy probe

The European Space Agency has selected a satellite to fly scorchingly close to
the sun and a probe to map the structure of the universe for launch in 2017 and
2019.

In a fight for scarce funding, the selected missions beat out a planet-hunting
mission designed to find Earth-sized planets in the deep cosmos. The winning
projects picked Oct. 4 by ESA’s science program committee are named Solar
Orbiter and Euclid.

“With the selection of Solar Orbiter and Euclid, the science program has once
more shown its relevance to pure science and to the concerns of citizens: Euclid
will shed light on the nature of one of the most fundamental forces of the
Universe, while Solar Orbiter will help scientists to understand processes, such
as coronal mass ejections, that affect Earth’s citizens by disrupting, for
example, radio communication and power transmission,” said Alvaro Gimenez, ESA’s
director of science and robotic exploration.

 

http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1110/08esamissions/

Giant sunspot turns to face the Earth

What has been billed as the largest sunspot observed in several years has now rotated around to stare straight at Earth. How large is it? Active Region 1339 and the group of sunspots adjacent to it extends more than 100,000 km from end to end and each of the several dark cores is larger than Earth. The now very active Sun has already blasted out several medium- to large-sized solar flares and has the potential to hurl out more.

And the Sun is now dotted with several smaller sunspots as well. Above is an amazing image of all this activity, as captured by astrophotographer Alan Friedman. “This has been a glorious week for solar observers!” Friedman said. “Led by large sunspot region AR1339, the sun’s disk is alive with activity… the most dynamic show in many years.”

http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-11-giant-sunspot-earth.html

2012: Killer solar flares are a physical impossibility

(PhysOrg.com) — Given a legitimate need to protect Earth from the most intense forms of space weather – great bursts of electromagnetic energy and particles that can sometimes stream from the sun – some people worry that a gigantic “killer solar flare” could hurl enough energy to destroy Earth. Citing the accurate fact that solar activity is currently ramping up in its standard 11-year cycle, there are those who believe that 2012 could be coincident with such a flare.

But this same solar cycle has occurred over millennia. Anyone over the age of 11 has already lived through such a solar maximum with no harm. In addition, the next solar maximum is predicted to occur in late 2013 or early 2014, not 2012.

Most importantly, however, there simply isn’t enough energy in the sun to send a killer fireball 93 million miles to destroy Earth.

http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-11-killer-solar-flares-physical-impossibility.html

 

Voyager 2 to switch to backup thruster set

(PhysOrg.com) — NASA’s Deep Space Network personnel sent commands to the Voyager 2 spacecraft Nov. 4 to switch to the backup set of thrusters that controls the roll of the spacecraft. Confirmation was received today that the spacecraft accepted the commands. The change will allow the 34-year-old spacecraft to reduce the amount of power it requires to operate and use previously unused thrusters as it continues its journey toward interstellar space, beyond our solar system.

Launched in 1977, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 are each equipped with six sets, or pairs, of thrusters to control their movement. These include three pairs of primary thrusters and three backup, or redundant, pairs. Voyager 2 is currently using the two pairs of backup thrusters that control the pitch and yaw motion of the spacecraft. Switching to the backup thruster pair that controls roll motion will allow engineers to turn off the heater that keeps the fuel line to the primary thruster warm. This will save about 12 watts of power. The spacecraft’s power supply now provides about 270 watts of electricity. By reducing its power usage, the spacecraft can continue to operate for another decade even as its available power continues to decline.

http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-11-voyager-backup-thruster.html

Hinode’s First Light And Five More Years

(redorbit.com)

On October 28, 2006, the Hinode solar mission was at last ready. The spacecraft launched on September 22, but such missions require a handful of diagnostics before the instruments can be turned on and collect what is called “first light.”

Hopes were high. Hinode had the potential to provide some of the highest resolution images of the sun the world had ever seen — as well as help solve such mysteries as why the sun’s atmosphere is a thousand times hotter than its surface and how the magnetic fields roiling through the sun create dramatic explosions able to send energy to the farthest reaches of the solar system.

The X-ray telescope (XRT) began taking images on October 23, the Solar Optical Telescope (SOT) opened its front door on October 25, and the Extreme Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer (EIS) started collecting spectroscopic images on October 28.

The images were beautiful, the data good; first light science had been achieved.

And so started five years in the life of a solar mission that would offer unprecedented details into the dynamics of the sun. Hinode – the word means “sunrise” in Japanese – is a mission led by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) with collaboration from NASA and other partners in the US, Europe, and Japan. Its instruments produce fantastic detail of both visible and magnetic features on the sun’s surface and in its atmosphere, the corona. Such detail was unprecedented at its launch and still prized today. Hinode has helped find the origin of the solar wind, discovered potential candidates for how the corona gets so hot, and provided images of the complex magnetic structures looping up and out of active regions on the sun.

http://www.redorbit.com/news/space/1112412944/hinodes-first-light-and-five-more-years

A Solar Cycle Primer

NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center-(ENEWSPF)- Telescopes spotted the first blemish on the sun in 1611. While the sun had long been thought—at least in the Western world—to be an unchanging, “perfect” orb, sky-watchers observed black sunspots on the sun’s surface that circled around as with the sun’s rotation.

That first crack in the theory of the sun’s immutable nature would soon fracture completely as the number of sunspots were shown to increase and decrease over time in a regular, approximately 11-year cycle, called the sunspot cycle. The exact length of the cycle can vary. It has been as short as eight years and as long as fourteen, but the number of sunspots always increases over time, and then returns to low again.

More sunspots mean increased solar activity, when great blooms of radiation known as solar flares or bursts of solar material known as coronal mass ejections (CMEs) shoot off the sun’s surface. The highest number of sun spots in any given cycle is designated “solar maximum,” while the lowest number is designated “solar minimum.” Each cycle varies dramatically in intensity with some solar maxima being so low as to be almost indistinguishable from the preceding minimum.

http://www.enewspf.com/latest-news/science-a-environmental/28284-a-solar-cycle-primer.html

Ultraviolet light shone on cold winter conundrum

(BBC News) Recent cold winters that brought
chaos to the UK and other places in northern Europe may have their roots in the
Sun’s varying ultraviolet emissions.

The latest satellite data shows the UV output is far more changeable than
scientists had previously thought.

A UK scientific team now shows in Nature
Geoscience journal how these changes lead to warmer winters in some places
and colder winters in others.

The researchers emphasise there is no impact on global warming.

The Sun has recently been in a quiet phase of its
regular 11-year cycle, which co-incided with three years in which the UK, along
with other places in northern Europe and parts of the US, experienced cold
conditions unusual in the recent record.

But unusually warm weather was felt both further south, around the
Mediterranean Sea, and further north in Canada and Greenland.

“The key point is that this effect is a change in the circulation, moving air
from one place to another, which is why some places get cold and others get
warm,” said Adam Scaife, one of the researchers on the paper, who heads the UK
Met Office’s Seasonal to Decadal Prediction team.

“It’s a jigsaw puzzle, and when you average it up over the globe, there is no
effect on global temperatures,” he told BBC News.

 

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15199065

Something new on the Sun: Spacecraft observes new characteristics of solar flares

(PhysOrg.com) — NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory, or SDO, has provided scientists new information about solar flares indicating an increase in strength and longevity that is more than previously thought.

Solar flares are intense bursts of radiation from the release of associated with . They are the solar system’s largest explosive events and are seen as bright areas on the sun. Their energy can reach Earth’s atmosphere and affect operations of Earth-orbiting communication and .

Using SDO’s Extreme ultraviolet Variability Experiment (EVE) instrument, scientists have observed that radiation from continue for up to five hours beyond the main phase. The new data also show the total energy from this extended phase of the solar flare’s peak sometimes has more energy than the initial event.

 

http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-09-sun-spacecraft-characteristics-solar-flares.html

No, a new study does not show cosmic-rays are connected to global warming

(discovermagazine.com) The way some of the media report on climate change can be simply stunning. For example, an opinion piece in The Financial Post has the headline “New, convincing evidence indicates global warming is caused by cosmic rays and the sun — not humans”.

There’s only one problem: that’s completely wrong. In reality the study shows nothing of the sort. The evidence, as far as the limitations of the experiment go (that’s important, see below), do not show any effect of cosmic rays on global warming, and say nothing at all about the effect humans are having on the environment.

 

http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/badastronomy/2011/08/31/no-a-new-study-does-not-show-cosmic-rays-are-connected-to-global-warming/

Flying on Sunshine, Once futuristic visions, solar sails now take off

(http://www.sciencenews.org) When it comes to futuristic space travel, few concepts are more romantic than sailing on sunlight. Soar above Earth, unfurl a jib and tack your way through the solar system all the way to interstellar space.

 

http://www.sciencenews.org/view/feature/id/333656/title/Flying_on_Sunshine

CERN’s CLOUD experiment provides unprecedented insight into cloud formation

Geneva, 25 August 2011. In a paper published in the journal Nature today, the CLOUD1 experiment at CERN2 has reported its first results. The CLOUD experiment has been designed to study the effect of cosmic rays on the formation of atmospheric aerosols – tiny liquid or solid particles suspended in the atmosphere – under controlled laboratory conditions. Atmospheric aerosols are thought to be responsible for a large fraction of the seeds that form cloud droplets. Understanding the process of aerosol formation is therefore important for understanding the climate.

The CLOUD results show that trace vapours assumed until now to account for aerosol formation in the lower atmosphere can explain only a tiny fraction of the observed atmospheric aerosol production. The results also show that ionisation from cosmic rays significantly enhances aerosol formation. Precise measurements such as these are important in achieving a quantitative understanding of cloud formation, and will contribute to a better assessment of the effects of clouds in climate models.

“These new results from CLOUD are important because we’ve made a number of first observations of some very important atmospheric processes,” said the experiment’s spokesperson, Jasper Kirkby. “We’ve found that cosmic rays significantly enhance the formation of aerosol particles in the mid troposphere and above. These aerosols can eventually grow into the seeds for clouds. However, we’ve found that the vapours previously thought to account for all aerosol formation in the lower atmosphere can only account for a small fraction of the observations – even with the enhancement of cosmic rays.”

http://press.web.cern.ch/press/PressReleases/Releases2011/PR15.11E.html

CERN:Probing the cosmic-ray–climate link

(http://physicsworld.com) Best known for its studies of the fundamental constituents of matter, the CERN particle-physics laboratory in Geneva is now also being used to study the climate. Researchers in the CLOUD collaboration have released the first results from their experiment designed to mimic conditions in the Earth’s atmosphere. By firing beams of particles from the lab’s Proton Synchrotron accelerator into a gas-filled chamber, they have discovered that cosmic rays could have a role to play in climate by enhancing the production of potentially cloud-seeding aerosols. Describing their findings in this week’s Nature, the team has also found that our current understanding of the chemistry of these aerosols is inadequate and that manmade pollution could have a larger role in their formation than previously thought.

Aerosols are tiny liquid or solid particles suspended in the atmosphere that can warm or cool the climate directly by absorbing or scattering radiation. They can also act as surfaces on which water vapour condenses, leading to the formation of cloud droplets and so tending to cool the planet. Around half of all cloud droplets are thought to form on aerosols that are injected directly into the atmosphere, such as dust particles, sea spray or pollution from the burning of biomass. The other 50% form on aerosols that are produced by the clustering of molecules of trace gases found in the atmosphere. However, it is not well understood exactly how this clustering takes place and precisely which kinds of molecules are involved.

 

http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/46953

Return top